Displacement of intervertebral discs
Key points • Intervertebral disc displacement is not a “disease,” but is a component of many variations of disorders of the spine. • The displaced disc material and the effects…
Anatomy of the spine
Key points • Intimate relationships between osseous, nervous, vascular, and soft tissue structures of the spine are critical to normal function. • A thorough understanding of these relationships is essential…
Disc space narrowing and osteophytes
Key points • Disc space narrowing and osteophyte formation are features of the general spine condition known as intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration • IVD degeneration is an age-related condition •…
Imaging technologies of the spinal discs
Key points • Various imaging modalities exist to assess the intervertebral disc. • Classification grading schemes have been proposed to assess the morphological and structural changes of the disc. •…
Intervertebral disc degeneration
Key points • The process of intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration consists of gradual structural and biochemical changes that may lead to pain and disability. • IVD degeneration is multifaceted, mediated…
Biomechanical models to study spinal phenotypes
Key points • Intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration involves endplate-driven and annulus-driven phenotypes that accumulate and interact with progressive degeneration and eventual collapse of the IVD. • IVD injuries result in…
Animal models to study spinal intervertebral disc phenotypes
Key points • Animal models are critical for understanding disease mechanisms and developing new therapies. • Species differences in intervertebral disc size, tissue composition, and cellular content associate with distinct…
Biomechanics of the spine
Key points • The spine protects the spinal cord and provides mechanical strength to the trunk while allowing for a certain amount of flexibility. • The intervertebral disc has a…
Spinal alignment
Key points • Global spinal balance is equally important as it is a dynamic process that includes the spine along with compensatory mechanisms consisting of the hips, and ankles. •…
Facet joints
Key Points • Pathologic changes seen in facet joint degeneration include fibrillation, joint space narrowing, articular cartilage thinning, subchondral bone sclerosis, osteophytosis, and development of juxta-facet cysts. • Risk factors…
