Abstract Severe bleeding in complex pelvic fractures usually originates from branches of the internal iliac artery, presacral venous plexus, fractured bones, and soft tissues. Major iliac vascular injuries are encountered…
Abstract The anterior abdominal wall has four muscles: The external oblique, the internal oblique, the transversalis, and the rectus muscles. The aponeuroses of the first three muscles form the rectus…
Abstract The trachea divides into the right and left main bronchi at the level of the sternal angle (T4 level). The right bronchus is wider, shorter, and more vertical compared…
Abstract The common femoral artery is a continuation of the external iliac artery and is approximately 4 cm long. It begins directly behind the inguinal ligament, midway between the anterior…
Abstract The liver is tethered by the following ligaments: The falciform ligament attaches the liver anteriorly to the diaphragm and the anterior abdominal wall above the umbilicus. The coronary ligaments…
Abstract The abdominal aorta bifurcates into the two common iliac arteries at the level of the fourth to fifth lumbar vertebrae (surface landmark is the umbilicus). The common iliac arteries…
Abstract The pericardium envelops the heart and attaches to the roots of the great vessels. This includes the ascending aorta, pulmonary artery, pulmonary veins, the last 2–4 cm of superior…
Abstract The upper mediastinum contains the aortic arch with the origins of its major branches. These include the innominate (brachiocephalic) artery, proximal left common carotid artery, and proximal left subclavian…
Abstract The esophagus is approximately 25 cm in length and begins at the level of the C6 vertebra. The external landmark is the cricoid cartilage. It terminates 2–3 cm below…
Abstract The diaphragm consists of a peripheral muscular segment and central aponeurotic segment. It is attached to the lower sternum, the lower six ribs, and the lumbar spine. During expiration…
