Surgical instruments
Introduction Surgical decompression is the main objective for many spinal procedures. Decompression may be performed in the cervical, thoracic, lumbar, or sacral spine, from a single approach or a combination…
ANESTHESIA
An overview on the anatomy of the spine
Cervical spine The cervical spine is composed of seven vertebrae, with the first two vertebrae known as the atlas (C1) and axis (C2). The atlas contains a thick anterior arch…
Displacement of intervertebral discs
Key points • Intervertebral disc displacement is not a “disease,” but is a component of many variations of disorders of the spine. • The displaced disc material and the effects…
Anatomy of the spine
Key points • Intimate relationships between osseous, nervous, vascular, and soft tissue structures of the spine are critical to normal function. • A thorough understanding of these relationships is essential…
Disc space narrowing and osteophytes
Key points • Disc space narrowing and osteophyte formation are features of the general spine condition known as intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration • IVD degeneration is an age-related condition •…
Imaging technologies of the spinal discs
Key points • Various imaging modalities exist to assess the intervertebral disc. • Classification grading schemes have been proposed to assess the morphological and structural changes of the disc. •…
Intervertebral disc degeneration
Key points • The process of intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration consists of gradual structural and biochemical changes that may lead to pain and disability. • IVD degeneration is multifaceted, mediated…
Biomechanical models to study spinal phenotypes
Key points • Intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration involves endplate-driven and annulus-driven phenotypes that accumulate and interact with progressive degeneration and eventual collapse of the IVD. • IVD injuries result in…
Animal models to study spinal intervertebral disc phenotypes
Key points • Animal models are critical for understanding disease mechanisms and developing new therapies. • Species differences in intervertebral disc size, tissue composition, and cellular content associate with distinct…
Biomechanics of the spine
Key points • The spine protects the spinal cord and provides mechanical strength to the trunk while allowing for a certain amount of flexibility. • The intervertebral disc has a…
