Normal Values
Values provided below are from a range of sources. Wherever possible 2-D TEE values are given. In situations where these values are not available, or are poorly documented, transthoracic echocardiography…
Image Planes and Standard Views
To maximize the diagnostic yield from transesophageal echocardiography (TEE), it is important to have an understanding of standard imaging views and important anatomic–echocardiographic relationships. Echocardiography is most commonly a two-dimensional…
Heart and Lung Transplantation
Heart transplantation Assessment of potential recipients Echocardiography forms an integral part of the assessment of patients with end-stage heart failure who are being considered for cardiac transplantation Echocardiography provides information…
Three-dimensional Echocardiography
Three-dimensional (3-D) echocardiography is an exciting development with the potential to have a major impact on the practice of perioperative transesophageal echocardiography (TEE). While imaging the heart with 3-D TEE…
Common Diagnostic Pitfalls and Cardiac Masses
The appearance of many normal anatomic structures can be quite variable and may lead to pitfalls in diagnosis, resulting in unnecessary alarm and inappropriate intervention. These structures are distinct from…
Systolic Left Ventricular Function
Cornelis Kruger David Sidebotham Assessment of left ventricular (LV) function is an essential part—if not the primary focus—of every echocardiogram performed in cardiac surgical patients. A strong correlation between LV function and…
Epicardial Echocardiography and Epiaortic Ultrasonography
Epicardial echocardiography was first described in 1972. Subsequently, there have been a number of reports documenting its use, particularly during surgery, for congenital heart disease and mitral valve (MV) disease….
Left Ventricular Diastolic Dysfunction
Left ventricular (LV) diastolic dysfunction is a common problem among patients with a wide range of cardiovascular diseases. For a number of conditions, notably hypertension (particularly if associated with LV…
Physical Principles, Ultrasonic Image Formation, and Artifacts
At first glance, two-dimensional (2-D) ultrasound images have much the same appearance as images made by two other common medical imaging modalities: X-ray computed tomography and magnetic resonance. However, ultrasonic…
Principles of Doppler Ultrasound
This chapter provides a brief introduction to the physics and operating principles of instruments using the Doppler effect in cardiovascular diagnostics. Readers seeking more detail should consult Kremkau’s textbook, Hatle…
