Mather LE. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles of opioid analgesics: a sameness amongst equals? Pain. 1990;43:3–6.PubMedCrossRef

Trescot AM, Datta S, Lee M, Hansen H. Opioid pharmacology. Pain Physician. 2008;11:s133–53.PubMed

Lebenow RL, Ivankovich AD, McCarthy RJ. Management of acute postoperative pain. In: Barash PG, editor. Clinical anesthesia. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2001.

Liu M, Wittbrodt E. Low-dose oral naloxone reverses opioid-induced constipation and analgesia. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2002;23(1):48.PubMedCrossRef

Egan DE. Opioids. In: Miller RD, editor. Basics of Anesthesia. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2011.

American Pain Society. Principles of analgesic use in the treatment of acute pain and cancer pain. 6th ed. Glenview: American Pain Society; 2008.

de Leon-Cassosla OA, Lema MJ. Postoperative epidural opioid analgesia: what are the best choices? Anesthesiol Analg. 1996;83:867–75.

Smith HS. Opioid metabolism. Mayo Clin Proc. 2009;84(7):613–24.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef